INTRODUCTION:
Mosquito
Mosquitoes are not just annoying—they also spread many serious diseases.1 Aedes aegypti spreads dengue and yellow fever, Anopheles stephensi causes malaria, and Culex spreads filariasis. Mosquito resistance to modern pesticides is driving the rise of these diseases.2 Plant-based products, including solvent extracts and essential oils, are widely used worldwide to kill or repel mosquitoes and other household pests.3 Larvicides are more effective than adulticides for long-term mosquito control, as they target larvae at breeding sites and help reduce the overall mosquito population.4,5 Natural plant products and essential oils offer an eco-friendly alternative to conventional larvicidal chemicals.6,7 Mosquitoes have three main body parts: head, thorax, and abdomen. Females bite humans to obtain blood proteins for egg development, while males do not bite.8 Mosquito-borne diseases have caused many deaths in the Philippines, driving interest in affordable, effective repellents. DEET-based patches can cause side effects, so plant-based alternatives are being explored. Lemongrass, garlic, and marigold are known natural repellents, but they haven’t been combined in a patch before. This study aims to develop a natural mosquito-repellent patch using these ingredients as a safer alternative to commercial products.9 Mosquito-borne diseases like dengue, malaria, and Zika cause over 700,000 deaths annually, especially in tropical and developing regions.
Fig No:1 Mosquito Bite
Urbanization and global warming are expanding mosquito habitats andisease spread.10 Various mosquito species like Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex spread diseases such as malaria and dengue. Prevention methods include removing breeding sites, using nets, repellents, and protective clothing. WHO-recommended long-lasting insecticide nets have reduced malaria cases by 50% in sub-Saharan Africa, but concerns remain about cost and. durability. Synthetic repellents can cause irritation and are unsafe for vulnerable groups. Many plant-based alternatives like citronella, neem, and eucalyptus have proven mosquito-repellent properties and are being developed into safe herbal products. 11 Mosquito-borne diseases like Zika, dengue, and malaria are commonly controlled with synthetic repellents like DEET and picaridin, which may harm health and the environment. Natural alternatives such as lemongrass, eucalyptus, and citronella oils are safer options. Advanced delivery methods like microencapsulation help extend their effectiveness. Patch-based essential oil repellents could offer safer, more affordable, and user-friendly protection.12
The way that mosquito repellent works:
Mosquito repellents work by masking human scent or emitting a smell mosquitoes dislike, preventing them from landing. Mosquitoes are attracted to CO₂ and lactic acid in human sweat.13
Fig No 2: The way Mosquito Reppe;ent Worls
Transdermal Patch:
Transdermal patches deliver drugs through intact skin into the bloodstream in a non-invasive, non-irritating manner. They provide controlled, continuous release and avoid first-pass liver metabolism, improving bioavailability. Ideal drugs for transdermal delivery are small, have short half-lives, require low doses, and show poor oral absorption.14
Herbal Medicine in Transdermal Patches:
Transdermal herbal patches combine traditional plant-based medicine with modern delivery technology. They release herbal compounds gradually through the skin, enhancing efficacy and reducing side effects compared to oral supplements. Common ingredients include valerian (relaxation), ginger (anti-inflammatory), menthol (pain relief), and green tea extract (metabolism support). These patches are used for conditions like muscle pain, anxiety, infections, wound healing, sleep disorders, and weight management.15
Types of Transdermal Patches:
1. Single-layer Drug-in-adhesive: In this method, the adhesive layer both secures the patch and helps release the drug through the skin. The active ingredient and excipients are combined in a single film layer.16
2. Multi-layer Drug-in-Adhesive: This patch uses multiple adhesive layers to control drug release—one layer provides immediate release, while another ensures scheduled, regulated delivery.17,18
A) Reservoir system: This transdermal system has a separate drug layer where the API is in a solution or suspension, enclosed by an adhesive and a semipermeable membrane. An adhesive coating lies between the skin and the release liner.19
B) Matrix system: The drug, in suspension or solution, is embedded in a semisolid matrix surrounded by an adhesive layer for skin attachment. This is called a monolithic system.20
Advantages:
The following are the primary advantages’ of utilizing herbal patches21,22
· Improving the transportation of polar and high molecular weight materials.
· Faster and easier to administer.
· The patch is easily taken off in the case that TDDS becomes poisonous.
· Facilitating an ongoing medication distribution system.
· It avoids the hepatic first pass metabolism.
· It offers prolonged action.
· There are less systemic drug interactions.
· It is possible to manage oneself.
· Preventing incompatibility of the gastrointestinal23
Disadvantages:
· A lot of hydrophilic drugs either don't permeate the skin at all or do so extremely slowly. This will affect the therapeutic effectiveness of the drugs.
· The patches may have caused a variety of problems, such as erythema, oedema, and itching.
· Acute diseases are not treated with it; only chronic ones are.
· Dose dumping may occur; ionic medicines are contraindicated with TDDS.
· Compared to other drug delivery methods, transdermal patches are relatively costly.24
General Procedure of Transdermal Drug Permeation:
Routes of Drug Penetration Through the Skin:
1. Transepidermal Pathway:
In this route, drugs pass through the stratum corneum, the skin’s outermost barrier that is multilayered and highly structured.
· Intracellular Route: Water-soluble (hydrophilic or polar) drugs may penetrate directly through the corneocytes, the specialized cells of the stratum corneum.
· Intercellular Route: Fat-soluble (lipophilic or non-polar) substances usually move between the corneocytes, traveling through the lipid-rich layers surrounding the cells.
2. Transappendageal Pathway:
In this route, drugs bypass the stratum corneum and instead enter through hair follicles and sweat glands, which act like small channels or openings in the skin.
In summary, drugs can reach the body either by crossing the layers of skin cells directly or by traveling through natural openings such as hair follicles and sweat glands. Each pathway favors different types of molecules depending on their chemical properties.25
Fig No 3: Patch
MATERIAL:
1) Lemmon Grass:
Lemon Eucalyptus Oil: Contains 85% citronellal; popular for its fresh scent and used in cosmetics and cleaning products. Provides up to 95% protection for 3 hours at 32% concentration but evaporates faster than DEET.
> Field and Lab Results: Shows effective protection against mosquitoes that transmit malaria and yellow fever.
> Lemongrass in Community Use: Inexpensive, easily available; effective against Aedes aegypti at 2.5% concentration in paraffin-based formulations.
> Alternative to Malathion: Lemongrass extract studied as a safer, low-cost fogging agent compared to malathion, which is costly and produces odors.
Thai Studies:
> At 10% concentration, lemongrass oil killed 100% of mosquitoes (Ae. aegypti, Cx. quinquefasciatus, An. dirus) in 24 hours.
> Citronella oil showed similar effects, with ~97.6% kill rate for Ae. aegypti.
> Knockdown study: Lemongrass oil had LC50 of 6.7%, showing strong repellent and secticidal activity.(26,27,28)
Fig No 4: Lemmon grass
2) Citronella Oil:
Citronella Oil as a Mosquito Repellent
Protection Time:
> Minimum 1.5 hours against Aedes spp.
> 3 hours against Anopheles spp.
> 5 hours against Culex spp.
EPA Safety: Citronella-based repellents are considered low-risk when used as directed.
Limitation: Protection lasts only ~2 hours due to rapid evaporation, making user vulnerable.
Key Compounds: Citronellal, citronellol, geraniol, citral, limonene.
Extended Protection:
> Vanillin (5%) can slow evaporation and extend duration when mixed with Cymbopogon winterianus oil.
> Nanotechnology (nanoemulsion with glycerol and surfactant) slows oil release, increasing protection time.
Comparative Studies:
Fig No 5: Citronella Oil
> Among 38 essential oils, citronella was most effective, providing 2 hours of repellency against Aedes aegypti.
> Similar findings across studies testing commercial plant extracts.29,30,31,32,33
3) Celery Leaves
Fig No 6: Celery Leaves
> Effective Concentration: 15% celery leaf extract repels mosquitoes.
> Active Compounds: Contains sesquiterpene alcohols, fatty acids, essential oils, saponins, steroids, isoflavonoids, alkaloids, and tannins—many with insecticidal or larvicidal properties.
> Enhanced Duration: Adding vanillin increases repellent longevity; more vanillin = longer protection.
> Traditional Use: Locally used as a natural mosquito repellent after simple processing.
> Research Focus: Development of repellent patches using methanol extract of celery leaves with PVP polymer variations for sustained release and mosquito control.34
CONCLUSION:
Mosquito repellent skin patches made with natural ingredients such as lemongrass oil, citronella oil, and celery leaf extract demonstrate strong potential as a safe and user-friendly alternative to chemical-based mosquito control. These ingredients are widely recognized for their bioactive compounds, particularly citral in lemongrass and citronellal in citronella, which function by masking the human scent and disrupting the mosquito’s olfactory receptors. Celery leaves also contain aromatic and phytochemical components that contribute to repellent action. Together, these plant-based materials provide a natural mode of protection that is gentle on the skin and environmentally responsible, making them appealing for frequent or long-term use, especially among children and individuals with sensitive skin.
The convenience of a skin patch offers several advantages compared to lotions and sprays. The patch provides controlled application without direct contact with the hands, avoids oily or sticky sensation, and simplifies use during outdoor activities. Its portability increases user compliance and reduces chances of inconsistent application, which is often a concern with conventional repellents. Despite these benefits, the duration of protection from natural oils is typically limited, as these volatile compounds tend to evaporate quickly. This limitation highlights the need for further research in sustained-release mechanisms that can slow evaporation and maintain a steady release of repellent vapors over time.
Future work should focus on optimizing formulation stability, improving adhesive and breathable patch materials, and determining appropriate dosage levels for different age groups. More standardized laboratory and field studies are required to evaluate performance across various mosquito species and environmental conditions. The safety profile should also be validated through dermatological testing and long-term exposure assessments.
In summary, mosquito repellent patches containing lemongrass oil, citronella oil, and celery leaves offer a promising, natural, and practical approach to personal protection against mosquitoes. With continued research and technological refinement, these patches can play an important role in reducing the incidence of mosquito-borne diseases and promoting public health.
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Received on 05.12.2025 Revised on 24.12.2025 Accepted on 09.01.2026 Published on 14.02.2026 Available online from February 18, 2026 Research J. Science and Tech. 2026; 18(1):93-99. DOI: 10.52711/2349-2988.2026.00014
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